Cosmic Rays - Where Do They Come From

Cosmic rays sound like some kind of science-fiction menace from outer space. It turns out, that in high-enough amounts, they are. On the other hand, cosmic rays pass through us every day without doing much (if any harm). So, what are these mysterious pieces of cosmic energy? Defining Cosmic Rays The term cosmic ray refers to high-speed particles that travel the universe. Theyre everywhere. Chances are very good that cosmic rays have passed through everyones body at some time or another, particularly if they live at high altitude or have flown in an airplane. Earth is well-protected against all but the most energetic of these rays, so they dont really pose a danger to us in our everyday lives. Cosmic rays provide fascinating clues to objects and events elsewhere in the universe, such as the deaths of massive stars (called  supernova explosions) and activity on the Sun, so astronomers study them using high-altitude balloons and space-based instruments. That research is providing exciting new insight into the origins and evolution of stars and galaxies in the universe.   Cosmic rays come from supernova explosions, among other processes in the universe. This is a Combined infrared and x-ray images of a supernova remnant called W44. Several telescopes looked at it to get the image. When the star that created this scene exploded, it sent out cosmic rays and other high-energy particles, as well as radio, infrared, x-ray, ultraviolet, and visible light. NASA/CXC and NASA/JPL-CalTech What Are Cosmic Rays? Cosmic rays are extremely high-energy charged particles (usually protons) that move at nearly the speed of light. Some come from the Sun (in the form of solar energetic particles), while others are ejected from supernova explosions and other energetic events in interstellar (and intergalactic) space.  When cosmic rays collide with Earths atmosphere, they produce showers of what are called secondary particles. History of Cosmic Ray Studies The existence of cosmic rays has been known for more than a century. They were first found by physicist Victor Hess. He launched high-accuracy electrometers aboard weather balloons in 1912 to measure the ionization rate of atoms (that is, how quickly and how often atoms are energized) in upper layers of Earths atmosphere. What he discovered was that the ionization rate was much greater the higher you rise in the atmosphere — a discovery for which he later won the Nobel Prize. This flew in the face of conventional wisdom. His first instinct on how to explain this was that some solar phenomenon was creating this effect. However, after repeating his experiments during a near solar eclipse he obtained the same results, effectively ruling out any solar origin for, Therefore, he concluded that there must be some intrinsic electric field in the atmosphere creating the observed ionization, though he could not deduce what the source of the field would be. It was more than a decade later before physicist Robert Millikan was able to prove that the electric field in the atmosphere observed by Hess was instead a flux of photons and electrons. He called this phenomenon cosmic rays and they streamed through our atmosphere. He also determined that these particles werent from Earth or the near-Earth environment, but rather came from deep space. The next challenge was to figure out what processes or objects could have been creating them.   Ongoing Studies of Cosmic Ray Properties Since that time, scientists have continued to use high-flying balloons to get above the atmosphere and sample more of these high-speed particles. The region above Antartica at the south pole is a favored launching spot, and a number of missions have collected more information about cosmic rays. There, the National Science Balloon Facility is home to several instrument-laden flights each year. The cosmic ray counters they carry measure the energy of cosmic rays, as well as their directions and intensities. A long-duration balloon flight from Antarctica can be used to detect cosmic rays. NASA The  International Space Station also contains instruments that study the properties of cosmic rays, including the Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass (CREAM) experiment. Installed in 2017, it has a three-year mission to collect as much data as possible on these fast-moving particles. CREAM actually began as a balloon experiment, and it flew seven times between 2004 and 2016. Figuring out the Sources of Cosmic Rays Because cosmic rays are composed of charged particles their paths can be altered by any magnetic field that it comes into contact with. Naturally, objects like stars and planets have magnetic fields, but interstellar magnetic fields also exist. This makes predicting where (and how strong) magnetic fields are extremely difficult. And since these magnetic fields persist throughout all space, they appear in every direction. Therefore it is not surprising that from our vantage point here on Earth it appears that cosmic rays do not appear to arrive from any one point in space. Determining the source of cosmic rays proved difficult for many years. However, there are some assumptions that can be assumed. First of all, the nature of cosmic rays as extremely high-energy charged particles implied that they are produced by rather powerful activities. So events like supernovae or regions around black holes seemed to be likely candidates. The Sun  emits something similar to cosmic rays in the form of highly energetic particles. The Sun emits streams of energized particles and cosmic rays. SOHO/Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (EIT) consortium In 1949 physicist Enrico Fermi suggested that cosmic rays were simply particles accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar gas clouds. And, since you need a rather large field to create the highest-energy cosmic rays, scientists began looking at supernova remnants (and other large objects in space) as the likely source.   Cosmic rays could stream from highly energetic events in the distant universe, such as activities associated with quasars. An artistic look at what an early distant quasar might look like. ESO/M. Kornmesser In June 2008 NASA launched a  gamma-ray telescope known as Fermi — named for Enrico Fermi. While Fermi is a gamma-ray telescope, one of its main science goals was to determine the origins of cosmic rays. Coupled with other studies of cosmic rays by balloons and space-based instruments, astronomers now look to supernova remnants, and such exotic objects as supermassive black holes as sources for the most highly energetic cosmic rays detected here on Earth. Fast Facts Cosmic rays come from around the universe and can be generated by such events as supernova explosions.High-speed particles are also generated in other energetic events such as quasar activities.The Sun also sends out cosmic rays in the form or solar energetic particles. Cosmic rays can be detected on Earth in various ways. Some museums have cosmic ray detectors as exhibits. Sources â€Å"Cosmic Rays Exposure.†Ã‚  Radioactivity : Iodine 131, www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Dose_Cosmic.htm.NASA, NASA, imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/toolbox/cosmic_rays1.html.RSS, www.ep.ph.bham.ac.uk/general/outreach/SparkChamber/text2h.html. Edited and updated by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Is The Struggle Really Worth It Essay - 2404 Words

Is The Struggle Really Worth It? How Stopping The Young Population Is Worthless In today’s society, happiness has many different definitions. Through the globe, ideas of how to make a person happy will variate from many different factors according to the corresponding culture. In Asia, many people think that peace and meditation gives the individual the right set of mind to guide their life. On the other hand, the countries in America have a different definition. Mostly, is thought that freedom gives many individuals the happiness to comprehend and continue their lives in the paths they wish to follow. Freedom is seen by many as a given right that has to be respected by everyone, but there has always been a big confusion on what does freedom means. Some say is the right to do whatever a person wants to do, while others says is the right to do what is morally right for themselves. Here is where the biggest confusion where many get confused and even ruin their lives because of this, causing a love/hate feeling toward freedom. This need to seek and find the corresponding freedom has many origins, and many are related to the origins of the human being. Since the beginning of the known history, humans have done whatever they felt they needed to survive and reproduce. This lead to a thing called instinct, that we even use now in days. Everything works in a way that was obviously meant to function, but everything falls apart when all mentioned before is oppressed by outside forcesShow MoreRelatedHow I Write An Essay981 Words   |  4 PagesAt one point or another, everyone struggles with writing an essay. I know that I have struggled with writing essays on more than one occasion. There are multiple parts of an essay that I struggle with, starting with grammar are my biggest issue, then along comes revising my own essay. 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Personal finance goals Essay Example For Students

Personal finance goals Essay Figuring out where you will be financially years from now is hard to imagine. There are always what you plan, and then theres things that just happen that you would usually rather not have of. You can always make goals and things and hope that things go alright and end up close to what you expected. I am currently eighteen years old. I am working on setting up all my financial things so that I am independent and can rely on myself for what I need and not have to worry about having my parents approving of things and being responsible for what I choose to do. I am going to take out a small loan soon and work on building up my credit history. I am also planning on transferring all my things like my car and phone to my name. This summer I am going to get a full time job as a CNA and save up some money for next year college. I plan on hopefully going to the University of Minnesota Twin Cities for my bachelors degree in nursing. As I attend college I plan on staying employed as a CNA and w orking as much as possible so that I can afford to pay my tuition that I will basically be on my own with. During my college years I plan to get a few small credit cards just in case and also to keep my credit good. After I graduate, I would like to move somewhere south or west and work as a Psych RN. While I work as a RN, I may go back to school and complete my masters program to become a NP (nurse practitioner). I will be receiving my insurance through whatever company I am working at because that will be required in order for me to even apply. Hopefully I will have met someone by then and will get married after I receive my bachelors and will eventually have two kids. I will then purchase my own house and also a car. I will be paying insurance on both of these items. I will work the rest of my life as a Nurse and will eventually retire at the age of 65. Although I dont really know how well all of this will work out and Im sure there are probably easier ways to do all this, I dont think I will be talking to any professionals. I think I have enough basic understanding in order to keep myself stable. Granted I will probably fall a couple of times and make a few mistakes, Ive been taught to keep working at it and youll get it right eventually. I know that in order to get what you want you have to try and work really hard. I dont believe in being handed things, whether it be money or advice or anything else. I would rather try and fail then have someone tell me what to and what not to do. I myself believe in risks to an extent. I think they are alright as long as they are somewhat logical. I dont believe in jumping off a cliff with no ropes hoping to survive. I plan on having two accounts, one checking and one savings. I will mainly work with my checking account and the savings will not be touched unless for emergencies. I will keep a mi nimum of a thousand dollars in my savings account, which I will be opening at a credit union since they have a slightly higher interest rate, so I will always have it. I have learned to always keep a safe amount of money the hard way, which is why I will be taking out a loan soon. I think the best investment for you to make is the purchasing of a house. The only catch though is to make sure that you can afford the payments, because if you dont make them all or you are late with them your credit will go down and you will not be able to buy another house for seven to ten years if you allow it to go down to zero. I believe that necessary investments are low risk. Although they might be a lot of money and can be very damaging to credit if not taken care of when they have to be, they are necessities and anyone with their right mind should have them as first priorities. With this I am talking about cars and necessary credit card purchases such as household equipment. I do not think credit cards should be used as any type of extra money. Its not extra, its borrowed. You do have to pay it back and the item will be extra because of all the interest that comes with them. If things are necessary to get at the time cash is not available, like a washing machine and things like that, then go for it. They are necessary to have because things do happen, but too many people use them the wrong way and then end up filing for bankruptcy. The investment that I believe is the highest risk of all would be the purchasing of stocks and relying solely on them for your everyday money supply. They are very unstable and can go many different ways over the course of one day. I think if you purchase one small one thats fine, but not very many unless you like taking those kinds of risks. When I get to about the age of 40-50, I will start to look into what I will need for retirement. I will begin putting money away so I can get a nice house and car. I will begin spending some money on little things because Im getting near the end. Once I get up into the fifties, I will probably be set. I will hopefully have a traditional IRA because I will have made so much money throughout my life. I will probably begin to look for a place to live once I do retire. I will make sure I have at least some kind of medical insurance because older people usually have high medical bills. .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a , .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .postImageUrl , .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a , .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a:hover , .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a:visited , .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a:active { border:0!important; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a:active , .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u0db64a7de0e5664b96540ad5ef0fb44a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Bill of Rights EssayWhen I get to the wonderful age of retirement, I will pretty much be set. I will have a job where a 401k plan is set up for me. I will also have my IRA to look to also. I should have plenty of money to support me and my family for the rest of our lives. All these plans will hopefully help me and my family become economically successful. If I can invest all my money intelligently then we will have a higher possibility for success. The key is to remember the things I have learned and do things the smart way.

Top Girls Essay Example For Students

Top Girls Essay Compare and contrast the presentations of relationships between parents and children in Top Girls and other drama texts you have read about the struggle for identity in modern literature. How far do you agree with the idea that such relationships are destructive? Throughout both Top Girls and The Beauty Queen of Leenane McDonagh and Churchill present parent child relationships as being destructive; a demise caused by deceit. During Top Girls, Angies discovery of the identity of her true biological mother, Marlene, results in a destructive relationship with her adoptive mother, Joyce. This theme is exaggerated further in The Beauty Queen of Leenane where Mags duplicitous relationship with Maureen sees her desire for control result in the act of matricide. We will write a custom essay on Top Girls specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The most obvious cause of destruction in the relationships is deceit. In The Beauty Queen of Leenane, Mag hides Patos letter from Maureen causing her relationship with him to fail. Maureen discovers her mothers dishonesty when Mag accidentally reveals her knowledge of the situation resulting in her admittance that did burn it! This revelation causes the destructive emotion of anger in Maureen and is the end to her relationship with Mag. Similarly, in Top Girls, Angie is lied to about the circumstances of her birth. This is revealed as Joyce tells Marlene I dont know how you could leave your own child to which her sister replies, You were quick enough to take her. Similarly this results in destruction through a lack of trust, however, this overheard conversation causes confusion rather than anger in Angie as she calls Marlene Mum? In Top Girls, the tension between Angie and Joyce is caused by the knowledge of deceit. This is emphasised by Churchill through the explicit language she gives them. Joyce calls Angie a Fucking rotten little cunt, suggesting extreme hatred surrounds their unusual mother daughter relationship. Similarly, in The Beauty Queen of Leenanes dialogue, Mag and Maureen swear constantly, again the mother figure, Mag, says angrily to Maureen Now you just shut your fecking This constant use of expletives shows a lack of respect in both relationships leading to a destructive circle of belittlement. Profane language is not the only means by which the playwrights demonstrate the dysfunctional nature of the relationships. During Top Girls, Angie becomes defiant; shown through her refusal to tidy her room. This is mirrored in Mags tendencies in The Beauty Queen of Leenane, where she continues to pour a potty of wee down the sink, when Maureen has specifically asked her not to. However, here it is the mother who is disobedient rather then the daughter, reflecting the role reversal between them as Mag becomes the dependant figure. Maureen feels that caring for Mag should not be her responsibility, causing further destruction as she becomes resentful of her mother and her absent sisters. This defiance heightens the tension between the women, leading to a cycle of revenge as each character strives to gain control. In The Beauty Queen of Leenane, Mag continues to defy Maureen, who in turn provokes her mother with the purchase of Kimberly biscuits despite the knowledge that her mother dislikes them. In Top Girls, Joyces tone becomes increasingly patronising towards Angie, making comments such as Of course it was there, its meant to be there. These remarks are made despite Joyces knowledge that Angie wishes to be treated as an equal, shown by Angies refusal to go to bed so she can stay up with Marlene and Joyce. Angies disobedience towards her mother solidifies Joyces attitude towards her daughter. As both mother daughter relationships become strained, the snide comments and constant attacks become humiliating. In Top Girls, Angie is embarrassed by Joyce whilst speaking to her friend, Kit. Joyce mocks Angie with Dont know much then do you? belittling her intelligence, a known issue which caused her to leave school early. Joyce also refers to Angie as a big lump whilst talking to Marlene, again humiliating for Angie by insulting her looks. To more extreme ends, in The Beauty Queen of Leenane, Maureen is treated in the same way by Mag whilst in the company of Pato. Mag attacks Maureen in front of Pato bringing up Difford Hall in England, a nut-house Maureen resided at for a month. Despite Pato seeing no shame in that at all, McDonagh uses stage directions to suggest that Mag is embarrassed as she talks quietly. .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 , .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .postImageUrl , .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 , .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758:hover , .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758:visited , .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758:active { border:0!important; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758:active , .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758 .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc51b7f74c5d2c847c1792724c6fc0758:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Hard Times EssayDue to both daughters being isolated, the feeling of humiliation is heightened and causes long lasting destruction in the form of low self esteem. In Top Girls, Angie has no job, and according to Joyce is not going to get a job, when jobs are hard to get. Her decision to leave school means she no longer has a reason to leave the house, and will not meet any new people. In The Beauty Queen of Leenane, Maureen is trapped with her mother and similarly has no job or many friends. Mag tells her you dont say hello to people is your trouble suggesting that she is a reserved character. Again this would mean that the humiliation regarding Pato would be focused on by her as her first and only love interest. Both daughters also appear to be subject to disapproval from their mothers. Both playwrights use dress to illustrate this. In Top Girls, Angie receives a dress from her birth mother, Marlene. Throughout the scene Joyce does not compliment Angie or the dress and merely tells her to Go to room then, dont want a strip show. Churchill uses Marlenes reactions as a direct contrast, with her encouraging Angie to try it on. Chronologically later, although dramatically earlier, after the discovery of Angies birth mother, she puts the dress on again and is told not today by Joyce. This disapproval is similar to, Mags scorn as she picks up disdainfully and tosses into a far corner. She also comments on her disgust at the price of Forty pounds just for that skimpy dress. Although Mag is alone when she makes the comments, the sentiment is conveyed as later Maureen goes over to where the dress is lying, crouches down beside it and picks it up, holding it to her chest. The image of the dress be ing close to her chest suggests the insults are close to her heart. However, an alternative interpretation would be that the dreams which the dress represents are close to Maureens heart, she is attempting to protect these from the destruction present between herself and Mag. The inevitable subsequent build up of tension between the mother and daughter leads to violence. In Top Girls, Angies discovery of deceit and consequent anger towards Joyce, leads to thoughts of matricide, as she tells friend Kit I put on this dress to kill my mother. This relates to Angies connection with the dress as it comes to represent, for her, a link with her birth mother and support in challenging Joyces role as mother. Despite not going as far as committing the act itself, Angie thinks of ways to kill her mother, she picks up a brick and assures Kit You can kill people with a brick. This is highly disturbing for the audience, as Angies determination is conveyed through her preparation. Furthermore, the dramatic form creates visual immediacy as the audience see her pick up the brick, thus her intentions become real. Angies violent thoughts appear to be reciprocated, although with less conviction, by Joyce. This is emphasised in the way she tells Angie to stay there and die, a appalling way for a mother to address her daughter providing the influence for Angies shocking behavior. The theme of violence is further present in The Beauty Queen of Leenane, as aggression escalates to the act of matricide. Throughout the play the revelation of a history of violence within the relationship is foreshadowed through the presence of Mags red hand and when she tells Pato, Shes the one that scoulded my hand. Despite Mags treacherous disposition, the audience is torn between the stories; though Mag provides evidence by up her left hand she has lied before and shows no remorse. On the other hand, Maureen often threatens her mother and has dreamed about her being dead in a coffin. The final act provides shocking confirmation of Mags torture as Maureen slowly and deliberately takes her mothers hand and starts slowly pouring some of the hot oil over it. Maureen is established as a violent character who continues to torture her mother whilst she screams in pain and terror. This use of in yer face theatre allows McDonagh to shock the audience. The brutality peaks as it is revea led that Maureen has killed Mag when she finally topples over and falls heavily to the floor, dead. This violence is particularly disturbing as Maureen appears to show no guilt or remorse for her actions as she looks down at , somewhat bored then steps onto her back as she leaves the room. This physical act represents Maureens feeling of triumph over her dead mother, as she feels that through the murder of her mother the destructive cycle has ended. .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 , .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .postImageUrl , .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 , .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89:hover , .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89:visited , .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89:active { border:0!important; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89:active , .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89 .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u21aee91faeffa6137e721a0123455b89:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The exposition and complications are introduced right from the start when the theme of the play, marriage, becomes apparent EssayIn conclusion, both playwrights convey destruction within the parent child relationships. This destruction is caused by deceit and manipulation initiated by the parents but further adopted by the daughters, often to more violent ends. During both plays, this cycle is portrayed as vicious and continuous. In Top Girls the chronological end to the play provides none of the characters with happiness or liberty. Similarly in The Beauty Queen of Leenane, although Maureen believes she is free from her mother, it is apparent to the audience that instead she has simply become her mother.

Is Class Size Crucial to School Improvement

Personality and Its Assessment Essays

Personality and Its Assessment Essays Personality and Its Assessment Essay Personality and Its Assessment Essay Personality has different meanings for theologians, philosophers and sociologists, and within psychology it has been defined in many ways (Allport, 1937). The main reason that leads so many psychologists to explore the human personality is that by doing so, the opportunity to predict a person’s behaviour in a situation presents itself, even before a situation occurs. Knowing more about one’s personality also allows us to learn about his/her dominant traits, information that can be of use in many aspects of everyday life (e. . recruiting the right people for the right jobs, treating a patient with the most suitable therapy etc. ). Many psychologists today (Block, Weiss and Thorne, 1979) define personality as a â€Å"more or less stable, internal factors that make one person’s behaviour consistent from one time to another, and different from the behaviour other people would manifest in comparable situations† (Childe, 1968). This definition gives us a clear v iew of the four major assumptions in the concept of personality: stable, internal, consistent and different. From the constructivist view, personality is seen as the combination of three equally important components: the actor, the observer and the self-observer. The actor component refers to the characteristics that a person brings to the social situation in which personality is constructed. These include all the genetic factors that may have the influence on a person’s behaviour, what he/she is capable or incapable to perform, as well as the individual’s history and present goals. The observer component refers to the way the actor is perceived by other people. Observers use the actor’s behaviour to construct an impression of the actor’s personality by adding social significance and meaning to the presented behaviour. As a result of this, we categorize people’s behaviour into different groups (e. g. ‘friendly’, ‘obnoxious’). These categories, apart from telling us about directly observable information, also add inferred meanings. The self-observer component is the direct consequence of the human ability to be self-aware. We can observe ourselves as we can observe other people, and we can see ourselves as we think other people see us. Throughout time, researchers have constructed various tools, scales and tests to attempt assessing personalities. The four main assessment methods currently used are interviews, observation, objective tests and projective tests. Interviews can be of two kinds, the structured and the unstructured. In the structured interview the person would be given a set list of questions to answer. These would mostly refer to the way a person sees him/herself behaving in different situations, by choosing the most appropriate statement that would describe him/her most accurately. In the unstructured interview the person would be asked to talk about himself without any obligation to a specific order and without much direction from the assessor. The observation method is used by the psychologist to learn about a person’s personality, through observing a person’s action and behaviour in different situations. The objective and projective tests are designed to learn aspects of one’s personality. While the objective way uses self-inventories that involve paper and pencil test, the projective way is about deriving information while a person talk about ambiguous stimuli. I shall go into further detail on these two means of assessment and their validity. While looking into methods of assessment, the two main personality tests appeared in either a structured or in an unstructured form. Structured Personality Tests The first structured personality test (also known as ‘objective’) was introduced by the U. S Army, while recruiting soldiers for World War I. The purpose of this test was to identify emotionally disturbed recruits. The test consisted of a list of questions that dealt with different symptoms or problem (e. g. â€Å"do you wet your bed? †). If the recruit was reporting many such symptoms, he was sent to further psychiatric examination (Cronbach, 1970). More personality tests were later introduced; the 2 major ones were the MMPI (Hathaway and McKinley, 1940) and the CPI. The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) assesses traits in comparison to psychiatric diseases, with the intention to make the test multiphasic, meaning diagnostic of a number of different kinds of psychopathology. This test was more concerned in finding abnormal behaviour that would indicate a psychiatric criterion (e. g. paranoia, depression, schizophrenia etc. . The CPI (California Psychological Inventory), unlike the MMPI, focuses on non-clinical behaviour and is more directed to high school and college students. This test investigates various personality traits such as sociability, dominance, responsibility etc. The validity of Structured Personality Tests The main problem with constructed personality tests is that most people taking i t are more or less aware of what the questions represent. Instead of giving an honest account of themselves they may try to manipulate their answers to avoid a stigma of a mental disorder or social stereotypes. Likewise, a person may wish to present him/herself in a bad light, in order to avoid undesirable object (e. g. being drafted). Even when precautions were taken by adding certain validity scales to the test, scales that were meant to make it easier to indicate when a lie was recorded, there was still no guarantee that patients weren’t lying to themselves and projecting their false interpretations when answering such tests. Furthermore, though personality tests can predict behaviour, their accuracy is doubtful. The correlation found between test scores and validity criteria are generally around +0. 0, indicating a low to moderate association (a perfect association between sets of scores produces a correlation of (+/-) 1. 00, whereas scores that are totally unrelated produce a correlation of 0) (Lasky et el. , 1959). Unstructured Personality Test The unstructured personality tests (also known as ‘projective’), introduced in the 1940’s and 1950’s, presen ted the examinee with unstructured tasks such as making up a story to fit a picture or describing what he/she sees in an inkblot. These tests were formed in such way that the examinee -instead of describing how he/she feels, acts or wishes- requires to do so regarding other stimuli. One example of such test is the Rorschach test (Rorschach, 1921). In this test, 10 symmetrical inkblots are presented to the individual; some are coloured and some black and white. The individual is required to describe what he/she sees. The method of interpretation regarding this test consist of various hypothesis, such as the one which claims that using the entire inkblot indicate integrative, conceptual thinking, whereas the use of the white space is supposed to be a sign of rebelliousness and negativism. Responses that are dominated by colour suggest emotionality and impulsivity. Another example is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Murrey, 1948). This consisted of thirty pictures of various scenes and a blank card. In each the examinee is required to imagine his/her own scene; describing what is shown, what led up to it and what the outcome of the scene will be in his/her eyes. This outcome of the TAT was interpreted by considering the examinee’s desired end- product as a picture of his/her major motives and conflicts, achievements and aspirations. The validity of Unstructured Personality Tests By now there are over 11,000 published articles regarding the Rorschach and the TAT. According to some experts, these tests have a very limited validity (Holt, 1978; Klein, 1982; Rorer, 1990). These studies have shown that individual Rorschach measurements have little relation to external validity criteria. In its ability to predict psychiatric symptoms, TAT assessments proved no better than the Rorschach’s test. In a study initiated in 1950, TAT was administrated to over 100 males, some in psychiatric facilities and others in college. The TAT results showed no difference between the normal group and patients. It also lacked the ability to show differences within the psychiatric groups (Eron, 1950). Although the TAT was proved to have little value as a diagnostic assessment for psychiatric classification, studies have shown that the test has some validity for more limited purpose, in particularly regarding indications of personal motives. One group of investigators worked with examinees who had not eaten for various periods of time. When presented with TAT pictures, their stories were highly connected to food and hunger, in comparison to the participants of the control group. Similar findings have been obtained concerning various other motives such as aggression, sexual arousal and the need for achievements (Atkinson and McClelland, 1948). Personality tests, in both their structured and unstructured form, consist of many more formats and use a large quantity of assessment methods. Although both types of tests consist of certain flaws, and are not always reliable, their contribution to the understanding of personality is significant. The appearance of such tests in the early 40’s has raised the interest of many researchers, psychologists and psychiatrics, and gave way to further studies on the issue of personality and its construct. References: Gleitman, H. (1999) psychology 5th edition, Norton (chapters 16 and 17) Hampson, Sarah E. (1988) The construction of personality: an introduction. 2nd edition, London: Routledge

Compare and contrast paper Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Compare and contrast paper - Movie Review Example the similarities, it is evident that the two movies depict great differences making the 2013 version of Carrie an improved version with regards to additional characters, scenes, and modernization. In this effect, the paper focuses on a comparison and contrast between the two films generated at different times in history. In terms of plot, the two films have a frantically similar layout; however, Carrie 1976 starts with Carrie white as a naà ¯ve, friendless and shy 17 year girl facing child abuse from her religious fanatic mother, Margaret. In the 2013, film a historic layout introduces the film, making viewers know the background of Margaret white as well as the birth of Carrie white. The scene does not appear in the 1976 version, which jumps directly to the play hence denying viewers the privilege of having background information about Carrie and her mother. Evidently, both have Carrie and Margaret as dormant characters although acted by different people motivated by different factors. An aspect of modernism remains clear in the two plots as the 1976 version majors in traditional beliefs and religious ratification. Although the 2013 version of Carrie gives providence to religious and traditional doctrines, it also makes use of other modern aspects as YouTube. For example, when Carrie experiences h er first menstrual period, a longtime bully Chris Hargensen records this and upload into the social site. No modern movie plays without the use of modern technology creating a difference between the 1976 film and the 2013 version. During the prom sequence, Carrie 2013 receives a 21st century twist, which generates a shaky camera that offers a good perspective to viewers. Arguably, the 1976 version of Carrie has terms that do not readily appease viewers. For example, â€Å"dirty pillows† detaches contemporary audience from the original version contrary to the 2013 film which has a modern spin of the classic tale accosted with orchestral tones. Conceivably, the 2013 version

The Broadway Caf Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Broadway Caf - Research Paper Example This paper tends to discuss certain market strategies that can be effectively applied in Broadway Cafe so as to bring it back to the mainstream of profitable businesses. Scope of e-business In order to operate the activities of Broadway Cafe in an efficient manner, it is necessary to design a good website that would provide customers with relevant information regarding the Cafe and its products/services. The website must provide 24 hours live support to customers with intent to satisfy their needs. The firm can also collect customer feedback which is an essential asset of any types of business for further expansion (MBD 1, e-business). The firm must heed genuine concern to cultural sentiments while dealing with diverse customer groups. At the same time the relevance of personal opinions have to be scrutinized well prior to decision making. For instance, an anonymous person’s feedback shows that he did not like the presence of the children at the Cafe. The opinion obviously dep ends on the individual’s social outlook which is of little relevance to practical side of the business. If the company bans children from the Cafe in order to meet an individual’s content, the firm will lose a large group of family customers. The website must be attractive enough to retain the customers as well as to attract new prospects. According to the report of Yankee group, website traffic is the main factor which determines the effectiveness of the company’s website (MBD 2, Competitive advantage). However, large degree of website traffic would not necessarily ensure large sales. Therefore, company must gradually assess the income generated from website traffic along with the number of acquisition of new customers and reduction in customer care calls so as to determine the success or failure of the website. The above discussed points are the primary requirements for a business website; whereas the actual business expansion necessitates some innovative conc epts. Firstly, the company must provide e-business facilities to their customer so that they can order required products through online transaction (e-business). People today wish to have immediate access to products and services in minimum time at less expense. Since the credit card using prepaid delivery system has simplified business transactions across the globe, this feasibility has been identified as one of the competitive advantages of modern firms. Customer retention In addition, Broadway Cafe should also arrange supply vehicles with employees in order to deliver ordered goods at the destinations right time. If the consumers are satisfied with the service, they will not switch their demand to other brands. As part of the business expansion, Broadway Cafe can also take advantage of the website in dealing with their suppliers. The website would help to interact with the suppliers in an effective way so that various costs associated with supply can be minimized to some extent. The website can also be deployed in order to ensure more conveniences to its employees. The application of e-banking would aid the company to easily cope with the payroll dealings; and it would also enable the company to eliminate the difficulties associated with the manual clerical work (United Bank). Company website is the best channel for conducting

Leadership styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Leadership styles - Essay Example Delegative leaders permit group members to make decisions. This style is best used in circumstances where the head needs to trust on experienced employees. The leader cannot always be correct at all times; thus, and that is why they entrust other duties out to professional and reliable or responsible group members. Leadership attributes needed for graduate level nurses may include team building and communication skills, management and technical competencies, personal integrity, strategic vision or action orientation and personal skills. All these attributes are needed to be a good leader. Leaders are often described as being unrealistic, fortified with strategies. Meaning that strategy and aspiration must be implemented to lead others to a future goal (Kelly, 2012). A potential leader is required to use problem-solving methods to retain member’s efficiency and improve group recognition. They should also be active, eager to have an inspirational impact on other people. They should be focused in finding solutions and pursue to encourage other colleagues. Leaders must be ready to practice these essential qualities even to their work so as to gain the admiration and confidence of his or her group members and guide the progress of clinical exercise, by exhibiting an active leadership style. A leader ought to influence the prosperous progress of other staff members. Leaders should also ensure that qualified standards are sustained and allowing the development of capable experts. Leaders who are looked up upon as driving forces are always admired by their staff members. They are always highly considered as a source for motivation and role models for nurses who inspire to be leaders in the future (Rigolosi, 2013). Leadership for the head nurses is mostly about the following: resolving conflict; delegating appropriately; making decisions, acting with integrity and responsibility. The role also includes encouraging others and being responsive of

Geography Overview of the Maldives

Geography Overview of the Maldives Abstract This paper reviews the Maldives and the political, economic, topographical, and historical geography of the nation and its people. After a brief overview of basic facts, the paper will shift focus to more specific areas. First, a look at the topographical geography of the nation, reviewing formation and size of atolls, as well as climate, flora, and fauna. Historical geography, political geography, and economic geography will be followed by a conclusion of the current state of the Maldives and possible future outcomes of the nation based on political and climate changes. Maldives The Republic of Maldives is a South Asian country comprised of atolls located in the Indian Ocean. It is an isolated archipelago that is one of the smallest and poorest countries in the entire world. The United Nations estimated that the population of Maldives to be approximately 294,000 people (Metz, 1995). The Maldivian capital of Male holds about a quarter of the total population. Officially, Divehi is the language of Maldives. Divehi is spoken similarly to the old Ceylon language. Arabic and Urdu have influenced the language, and Maldivians write in Thaana. Most government officials speak English, but only a small percentage of Maldivians speak anything other than Divehi. Ethnic groups consist of a combination of Sinhalese, Arabic, Dravidian, Australasian, and African assemblages (Metz, 1995). Topographical Geography The Republic of Maldives is the smallest country in Asia. An archipelago located in the Indian Ocean, Maldives consists of nearly 1,200 coral islands assembled in a dual chain of 27 atolls. These atolls sit upon a ridge jutting up from the Indian Ocean in a north-to-south expanse of 596.5 miles (Brown, Turner, Hameed, Bateman, 1997). Many atolls are made of circular coral reefs which support small islands within. Each island spans about a mile, and are less than a mile above sea level. Maldives is the worlds lowest country, with an average ground-level elevation of only 4 feet 11 inches above sea level. The highest point in the Maldives is also the lowest in the world, coming in at 7 feet 10 inches (Metz, 1995). No single island is longer than 5 miles or wider than 18 miles. Each atoll has about five to ten islands that are populated, and twenty to sixty which are unpopulated. Many atolls consist of a main remote island enclosed by a steep coral beach (Metz, 1995). The Maldives archipelago is situated upon the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge, which is an immense underwater mountain range. This particular geographical set up forms a unique terrestrial ecoregion, but leaves the nation susceptible to natural disasters due to rising sea levels. For example, the tsunami of 2004 killed more than 100 Maldivians and displaced more than 12,000 (BBC News, 2014). Other environmental issues plague the Maldives, leading to a diminishing supply of freshwater and poor sewage treatment (Brown et al, 1997). Approximately 200 of these atolls are inhabited by local Maldivians, and 87 of the islands have been converted into lavish resorts for travelers and tourists. The lush groves of breadfruit and coconut trees, the sandy beaches and beautiful corals visible through crystal clear waters combined to attract nearly a million and a half tourists to Maldives in 2015 (Naish, 2016). Historical and Political Geography Early Maldivian history is shrouded in mystery. No archeological remains have been found of early settlers. The earliest identified settlers were probably from southern India followed by migrants from Sri Lanka. Arab sailors came from east Africa and other countries, and todays ethnicity reflects a blend of these cultures (Metz, 1995). Many researchers believe the earliest settlers to be of Aryan descent, coming from India and Sri Lanka in the 5th century BC. Maldivians are believed to have practiced Hinduism, then Buddhism until 1153 AD. The sitting king of Maldives was converted to Islam in the 12th century (Metz, 1995). Maldivian history reflects the Islamic concept that before Islam, ignorance reigned, although the Maldivian culture reflects much of the customs and mannerisms from when Buddhism was prominent in the area. Since that initial Islamic conversion, the recording of history in Maldives was much more consistent (MaldiveIsle, 2010). After Islamic conversion, the Maldivian government was considered a monarchy ruled by sovereign sultans, and intermittent Sultanas or queens (MaldiveIsle, 2010). Trade wars with the Portuguese during the 16th century lead to Portuguese seizure of Male in 1558. In 1573, resistance leader Muhmmad Thakurufanu defeated the Portuguese invaders and ruled Maldives until 1752. At this time, Malabari pirates overthrew the Sultan, Ali 6th, and stationed army troops in the capitol. Maldivian leader Muleege Hassan Maniku regained control of the throne (MaldiveIsle, 2010). Political instability led Maldives to enter into a protectorate with the British in 1887, wherein Maldives gained protection from foreign antagonism, in exchange agreeing not to join forces with any other foreign authority (MaldiveIsle, 2010). Although researchers disagree whether or not Maldives was definitely independent of British power, for the most part Maldivians enjoyed independence from foreign rulers. The Maldivian constitution was formed in 1932, with overtones of Islamic Sharia law, and the sultanate becoming an elected position (MaldiveIsle, 2010). However, the public disagreed, physically tearing the Constitution to pieces and dethroning the Sultan in 1934 for overstepping his bounds. A new Constitution was written in 1937. Nine years later, the British agreement was renewed. The Maldives changed from a monarchy to a Republic within the British Commonwealth in 1953, and the position of sultanate was eliminated. Mohammed Amin Didi was the first elected President of Maldives, but his victory was cut short after being overthrown due to food scarcities and his tobacco ban. The Sultanate once again ruled Maldives until 1968, with famine caused by World War Two lingering into the 1950s. Mohammed Fareedh was the last Sultan of the Maldives, having been ousted after the Republic was reinstated and Ibrahim Nasir became President in 1968 (BBC News, 2016). Nasir retired in 1978, and was succeeded by Abd al-Gayoom. Maldives rejoined the Commonwealth in 1982, after the tourist industry led to expanded economic growth (BBC News, 2016). Gayoom was reelected repeatedly until 2008, when opposition leader Mohamed Nasheed became President. Nasheed resigned in 2012 after demonstrations and mutiny by the police force, and Vice-President Mohamed Waheed rose to the Presidency. Political unrest in Maldives continued after the 2013 election of Gayooms half-brother, Abdulla Yameen. However, opposition leader and former President Nasheed was arrested on terrorism charges in 2015, prompting speculation from international governments about political unrest in Maldives (BBC News, 2016). Nasheed was sentenced to 13 years for his terrorism case, but was granted leave in January 2016 to travel to Britain for back surgery. In April, the Maldivian government ordered Nasheed to return; however, Nasheed was granted refugee status in Britain, where he remains to this day (BBC News, 2016). Abdulla Yameen remains the Maldivian President, and in October 2016 the Maldives announced its departure from the Commonwealth (BBC News, 2016). Current political atmospheres in Maldives appear to be relatively stable. The political structure remains a Republic with an executive President and a Legislature known as Peoples Majlis. Both positions are selected during elections that take place every five years. Like the United States, Presidents are limited to two terms in office (BBC News, 2016). Economic Geography Once known as The Money Isles, Maldives was the main producer of cowry shells. These Maldivian cowries were used in monetary transactions over most of Asia and much of East Africa, and the cowry is used as the symbol of the Maldives Monetary Authority. Historically, shipping and fishing have been the fixed industries of the nation, not surprising since the Maldives territory is comprised of islands (MaldiveIsle, 2010). Poor soil quality and scarce cultivatable land limit the practice of agriculture. Native fruits and vegetables are used mainly to feed natives, and most other living essentials are imported. Crafting and boatbuilding fuel business workings, and more modern manufacturing and assembly is limited to a fish cannery, a few garment factories, and assorted consumer products. Many Maldivians work in the fishing industry, which employs almost half of the labor force (Brown et al, 1997). With fishing being the main source of employment for Maldivians, a variety of fish is caught and exported for profit. The main types of fish caught and sold are skipjack tuna, yellowfin tuna, little tuna, and frigate mackerel. Once done by hand with a line and pole, modern fishing vessels have enabled Maldivian fishermen to nearly triple their catch, while refrigeration has allowed for longer storage times which enable fishermen to travel farther out to sea for their catch (MaldiveIsle, 2010). Although there appears to be a shortfall of resources in the Maldives, tourism has grown impressively over the last twenty years. The beauty and tranquility of the water, as well as the native flora and fauna attracts nearly 1.2 million tourists per year. Because of this uptick in tourism, skilled laborers such as construction workers, tile workers, and other craftsmen are experiencing an increase in work (Naish, 2016). Overall, Maldives is a beautiful, lively nation with a vibrant history and interesting culture. From early Dravinian culture to modern-day Islam, Maldives has remained steadfast in its resolve to preserve the atolls that nearly a quarter million people call home. However, despite local government efforts, the increasing damaging effects of climate change and global warming threaten to eliminate this isolated gem from the world map entirely. Only time will tell if efforts to reduce climate change impact can save this wonderful nation. References Brown, K., Turner, R., Hameed, H., Bateman, I. (1997). Environmental carrying capacity and tourism development in the Maldives and Nepal. Environmental Conservation, 24(4), 316-325. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/environmental-conservation/article/div-classtitleenvironmental-carrying-capacity-and-tourism-development-in-the-maldives-and-nepaldiv/DC50C550C6E6403C034B77F3292FAB9F History of Maldives. (2010). In Maldive Isle. Retrieved from http://www.maldiveisle.com/history.htm Maldives Profile- Timeline. (2016). In BBC News. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12653969 Metz, H. C. Library Of Congress. Federal Research Division. (1995) Indian Ocean: five island countries. [Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O] [Online Text] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/95016570/. Naish, A. (2016). Tourist arrivals reach 1.2m in 2015. In Maldives Independent. Retrieved from http://maldivesindependent.com/business/tourist-arrivals-reach-1-2m-in-2015-121424

Developmental studies

At the beginning of the twentieth century underdeveloped countries began to look for the ways to diminish their dependency on agricultural exports and to bring on an industrial revolution. The situation which evoked this need was critical. The problem was that the underdeveloped countries developed mainly the policies of supporting primary commodity exports. Transportation policy was used in the infrastructure for delivering the export crop to the harbour.The research institutions specialized in agriculture worked only on improving crops for export, for example, sugar cane, coffee, cotton, etc.  while crops for domestic consumption, for instance, beans or manioc corn, potatoes, left with little or even without expenditure. As a result some of the underdeveloped countries had to follow the policy of import substitution to induce industrialization. Import substitution industrialization will be the goal of study of this paper. This economic policy will be investigated in the frames of an economic term with the necessary characteristics and also in a wider meaning as the experience of the countries of East Asia and Latin America.In the process of research different points of view, both pro and contra, will be cited in order to shed the light on positive and negative aspects and cover the field broadly. In the conclusion of the paper the main findings will be summed up. The term of import substitution can be defined as an economic process and as a policy strategy. As a process import substitution relates to the situation â€Å"where regions (more precisely, existing or new economic activities within regions) take up the production of goods or services which formerly were imported, but, for whatever reasons, now can be viably produced within the region (e.g. as a result of population increases leading to increases in demand or as a result of productivity increases resulting in greater competitiveness. †(Economic Geography Glossary, 1999)Import substitution i ndustrialization (ISI) as the economic strategy means encouraging the development of domestic industry by limiting manufactured goods import. The need of ISI implementation arouses from the belief that there is a potential comparative advantage in some of the industries of developing countries, but these industries are too weak yet to compete with foreign well-established ones.Thus, in order to allow infant industries to establish themselves and to realize their potential, and consequently to be able to compete internationally, governments should support the initial period of their development. The protection of government implies temporary measures such as using tariffs or import quotas to start industrialization in the country. As a policy strategy import substitution can be used to achieve the following goals: 1) to utilize the capacities which are underused; 2) to fight unemployment in the regions;3) to protect infant industries. The policy of import substitution industrializati on, according to the definition provided by the encyclopaedia, is â€Å"a trade and economic policy based on the premise that a developing country should attempt to substitute products which it imports, mostly finished goods, with locally produced substitutes. †(Wikipedia, 2005) The theory of import substitution has much common with the theory of mercantilism. Both the theories promote minimal imports and high exports as the means of inducing the growth of national wealth.In order to implement the policy of import substitution industrialization, the following three main tenets must be pursued: 1) protective barriers to trade, which can be set up in the form of tariffs. Tariffs or custom duties are applied to the goods which are imported and in this way they artificially protect domestic industries from competition with foreign companies; 2) a particular industrial policy, which orchestrates and subsidizes production of the substitutes; 3) a monetary policy, which will keep th e domestic currency overvalued.Monetary policy is implemented by setting reserve requirements and changing some interest rates directly or indirectly. The chief tools of monetary policy are operations in open market. In open market money circulates through the selling and buying of deferent foreign currencies credit instruments, or commodities. Such sales or purchases create a certain base currency which leaves or enters market circulation. Usually open market operations are aimed at achieving a specific short term interest rate target.However, monetary policy may also target a certain â€Å"exchange rate relative to some foreign currency or else relative to gold. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Equally important is to note that import substitution as economic protectionalizm can have negative outcomes. Stutz pointed out that â€Å"This form of economic protectionism helped some countries industrialize in the past but involves economic risks. † (Stutz and Souza, 1998) The risks of import substitution meant by Stutz are potential inefficiencies and higher prices.Successful implementation of this policy as a rule needs massive expenditure on infrastructure. Additionally, import substitution is accompanied by the establishment of state firms in the areas of industry which are thought to be too risky or too large for the private sector (or example, steel, aircraft) or estimated to be too important to be owned by foreign firms (or instance, oil). The policy of import substitution industrialization was argued by the advocates of absolute free trade theory.Generally, free trade becomes possible when the flow of services and goods between countries is not taxed. In particular, the economists who supported free trade policy stated that economic strategy would become successful only under the following conditions: 1) international trade in services must be without trade barriers, or tariffs; 2) international trade of goods must not be free from any possible tariffs (n amely taxes on imports) or trade barriers (for example, quotas on import); 3) the free movement of international labor; 4) the free movement of international capital;5) the absence of any economic protectionalizm, implemented by trade-distorting policies (for instance, subsidies, regulations taxes, or laws), which gives an advantage to domestic firms, factors of production, and households over foreign ones. Thus, it becomes obvious that free trade proponents advocated the policy which totally contradicted the fundamental tenets of import substitution industrialization. On the other hand, free trade proponents suggested that a foreign subsidy should be considered as another of comparative advantage and consequently domestic barriers should not be imposed on the purchase of goods produced overseas.Free trade economists pointed out that unlimited imports will be beneficial for domestic consumers which overweighs the loss of domestic producers. Thus, the lower prices of foreign subsidie s can be considered as net positive. Therefore, the domestic society where any import restriction is applied becomes â€Å"a whole worse off than it would be with unlimited imports. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Anyway, the viewpoints of the both theories – import substitution industrialization and absolute free trade – were checked in the process of their implementation and in real life experience.In the period from 1930 to 1940 the policy of import substitution industrialization was adopted in many underdeveloped countries of Latin America. The driving force which precipitated the acceptance of import substitution idea was the Great Depression which took place in 1930s. According to article Concern with Policy-relevance in the Latin American School of Economics authored by Bianchi, â€Å"Import substitution was a necessary condition for peripheral growth, in association with structural reforms in the economy.The focus should be placed on the strenghtening of the domest ic market, which was seen as the crucial element of an inward-looking model of development. † (Bianchi A. M. , 2003) Later on, in the 1950s Raul Prebisch, the prominent Argentine economist, expressed his belief that the only way to succeed for developing countries was to build forward linkages domestically and to create industries which would work on primary products already produced by the countries themselves. The policy of tariffs would help the domestic industry to prosper.By implementing the policy of import substitution industrialization in the period from 1950 to 1970 a number of Latin America countries, in particular Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, attempted to reach positive results and to increase their national wealth. The success of the policy in these countries was based on either high living standards or large populations. However, poorer and smaller countries, for example, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Honduras, were not successful in adopting import s ubstitution policy.Also it is notable that the countries which succeeded in import substitution industrialization managed to change the structure of their governments. Thus neo-colonialism collapsed and was replaced by democratic way of governing. Nationalization turned banks and utilities into public property and returned to nation some of the companies previously owned by foreigners. A case of implementation of import substitution industrialization can be examined with the help of the example of Brazil.Brazil was the country which carried the policy of import substitution industrialization later than other underdeveloped countries. The economists in Brazil carefully analyzed its effects and were planning the industrial development of the country while the other countries started import substitution mainly by accident. It is important to note that Brazil initially had all the chances for success in the policy of import substitution, since its population goes up to 170 million, whic h makes Brazil the fifth largest country in the world.Also Brazil is the fifth largest country by its land area. And finally, Brazil is rich in forest reserves, minerals, navigable rivers agricultural land, and hydroelectric capability. The development of Brazilian economy in the period from 1950 to the 1970s confirmed the most optimistic views. Brazil with its rich resources and reserves was called â€Å"the land of the future†. In 1950 Brazil attempted to establish the largest industry of motor vehicle having practically no sufficient basis. Thirty years later aircraft of Brazil were working on commuter airlines on the United States.Brazilian shoes spread everywhere. Moreover, Brazil opened up the richest iron mine in the world and Brazilians found out the capital city on the place where previously had been a roadless jungle and built the network of roads going deep into Amazon. When the oil prices rose and began threatening the development of Brazil economy, Brazilians lau nched huge hydroelectric projects to operate the growing industries of the â€Å"Golden Triangle†, which included Sao Paulo Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte and required the new automobiles to run on rum instead of gasoline.At the beginning of the 1980s even pessimists agreed that Brazil was â€Å"the country of future†, however added â€Å"and always will be†. The growth of Brazil stopped, when it was almost close to ripening. The modern cities in Brazil coexist together with miserable shanty-towns surrounded with open sewers. The roads are shared by modern vehicles and hand carts. The wages of Brazilian executives are the highest in the world, but at the same time average workers hardly reach subsistence level. Some economists call Brazil â€Å"a Switzerland within an India.† Other economists consider that the case of Brazil brightly illustrates economic growth without economic development. Economist Celso Furtado characterized the state of Brazilian economy in the following way: â€Å"The Brazilian economy constitutes a very interesting example of how far a country can go in the process of industrialization without abandoning its main features of underdevelopment: great disparity in productivity between urban and rural areas, a large majority of the population living at a physiological subsistence level, increasing masses of unemployed people in the urban zones, etc.† (Development policies, Catching Up, Sec 2, Chap 14) By the 1950s the industrial development by means of import substitution had been already a planned process in Brazil. New industries were protected from the foreign competition with the help of a number of methods. Basic industries (for example, steel, electrical power, petroleum reining) became either fully owned by state or received direct subsidies. Law of Similars aimed at putting high tariffs (sometimes tariffs went up to 300%) on imported goods as soon as any domestic firm somewhere in Brazil started manufacturing something ‘similar’.The industries considered high priority always could be credited under favorable terms by a national development bank. For some period of time, the government even set multiple exchange rates in order to lower the cost of imported capital equipment while the price of imported finished goods was kept expensive. One of the growing Brazilian industries in the mid of twentieth century was motor vehicles. The government hoped that foreign financing would help to expand Brazilian firms which were already producing motor parts, bus bodies, truck and so on and soon would turn them into real vehicle manufacturers.But this approach had to be changed for the government of Brazil faced the reluctance of American government to extend loans and the disapproval of the firms from Europe and the USA who owned a critical technology. The world famous giants – Fiat General Motors, Mercedes Volkswagen, and Ford – were threatened to lose their markets in Brazil if they did not manufacture vehicles within the country. It is important to note that modern manufacturing, in particular the production of appliances, motor vehicles, TVs and so on is a complex process that requires substantial knowledge and skill.Final assembly became possible in Brazil since it was the last stage of production and required the least skill. So, launching modern industries Brazil could start with final assembly and gradually came to more complicated â€Å"backwards†, which included more difficult procedures. For example, Volkswagen could start importing complete parts, such as engines, wheels etc. and assemble them in Sao Paulo plant. The tariffs allowed Volkswagen to sell 1960 30% Brazilian Beetle for twice what Europeans would pay even if the quality was not that high. Eventually, most of the parts became produced in Brazil and the quality of assembly improved.Gradually, the competition from Brazilian Fiats, Fords, and Chevrolets pushed the price down. In this way, Brazilian motor vehicle industry became more and more efficient and even in the 1970s Brazil exported subassemblies and parts to America and to the European countries. By 1980 Brazil started exporting entire vehicles. When import substitution industrialization was implemented in Latin America, the drawbacks of the policy soon revealed themselves. In Brazil as well as in other Latin America countries import substitution model led to foreign ownership in all the sectors in industry except those occupied by state enterprise.When the interests of foreign firms were threatened by Brazilian taxes, environmental or labor legislation, American, German, Italian, British Japanese or French owners were quick to call on their state departments. In particular, the Department of the United States defined one of its key objects as establishing favorable â€Å"business climate†. This meant undermining Brazilian government. Thus, in 1964 some Brazilian generals, b eing encouraged by American officials, made an attempt to overthrow constitutional government of their country.Another drawback of import substitution industrialization revealed in the fact that this policy led to huge foreign debts. It was not accidental, that Brazil and Mexico ran into debts in order to cover the expenses of their infrastructure development. The development of infrastructure needs a large number of hard currency imports. If infrastructure grows and increases exports together with hard currency earnings, a country can borrow in dollars. Then, under such condition, the country has to earn dollars in order to make the interest payments.But import substitution requires borrowing in dollars for the purpose of economic development of the domestic production that will not necessarily expand exports. By the end of the seventies the countries of Latin America faced the problem: Where to go next? And the next logical step was to export the goods which had been already produ ced efficiently. By the middle of the eighties Brazil became the largest exporter of shoes and coffee, among ten major exports to America, six were manufactured projects. Nevertheless, the expansion of manufactured goods made Brazilian economy vulnerable to retaliatory tariffs.Moreover, in the 1980s Brazil as well as other underdeveloped countries of Latin America did not manage to pursue the next layer of import substitution ( in particular, microchips, computers, capital equipment), although they attempted to create open markets for their manufactured consumer goods. Unlike the nations of Latin America, the majority of East Asian nations rejected the policy of import substitution industrialization. Due to this, as many economists think, East Asia had its superior performance in the seventies and the eighties of the twentieth century.Generally speaking, the Asian growth had started before World War II in Japan. The process of Asian growth included three groups of countries whose ec onomic â€Å"miracle† began at different times: 1) Japan (after the Second World War); 2) The â€Å"four tigers†: Taiwan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore (the sixties of the twentieth century); 3) Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, China (from the 1970s to the 1980s) In fact, by rejecting import substitution industrialization Asian nations managed to avoid some negative results of this policy. First, their economies were not dragged by inefficient industries.Second, East Asia did not have to implement policies benefiting industrial workers at the expense of those working on the farms. This was crucial for Asian countries because farmers made up the majority of their population. In addition, in order to diminish the cost of industrialization, the cost of food needed to be kept artificially low. And also, East Asia attempted to prevent the appearance of rent seeking behaviours, which resulted from the usage of the licensing schemes for import substitution strategy and whic h usually increased inefficiency of economics.High tariffs on manufactured goods, which were imposed by many countries in order to create their manufacturing bases, forced multinational companies to assemble or produce them locally. For example, manufacturers of motor industry exported vehicles for local assembly. Their vehicles were delivered ‘completely knocked down’ and the local assembly resulted in poorer quality and higher expenditures in comparison with those imported already built up. Moreover, the local assembly of identical products only duplicated resources and reduced economies of scale, which became increasingly inefficient for manufacturers.On the whole, at the beginning of 1980s the policy of import substitution industrialization began to fail both in Latin America and in those Asian countries where the policy was adopted. Generally, it happened because the governments involved in the policy started to overspend reserves in order to keep the stability of currency. The governments in Latin America defaulted on their debts and had to turn to the help of the International Monetary Fund. Another process which contributed to the failure of import substitution was globalization.However, some economists think that the collapse of the policy of import substitution industrialization â€Å"should not necessarily be taken as an endorsement of globalization. † (Wikipedia, 2005) Such point of view was supported by the fact that some countries of East Asia also used high tariff barriers while rejecting the rest of the strategy of import substitution. This mixed policy was focused on investment and subsidies on the industries which would produce goods for export. As a result, these Asian countries managed to create competitive industries.However, irrespective of all their achievements, the policies described above also proved to be inefficient and later led to many problems during Asian financial crisis. The closing period of import substit ution industrialization was in 1989 when the Washington Consensus as a set of policies designed to promote economic growth in the countries of Latin America was presented by John Williamson. The Washington Consensus included reforms which continued the policy of import substitution industrialization offering a modernized version of its tenets.In particular, the Washington Consensus proposed the following: 1) the discipline of fiscal policy; 2) tax reform. It flattened tax curve: the tax rates on high tax brackets were lowered and the tax rates on the low tax brackets were raised. Also it suggested lowering the marginal tax rate; 3) Competitive exchange rates; 4) Trade liberalization by means of low and uniform tariffs which would replace quantitative restrictions; 5) Reduced limitation for foreign direct investment; 6) Privatization of state enterprises;7) Deregulation, which implies â€Å"abolition of regulations that impede entry or restrict competition, except for those justifie d on safety, environmental and consumer protection grounds, and prudential oversight of financial institutions† (Wikipedia, 2005) 8) Property rights must be legally secured; 9) Public spending should be redirected toward the investment of health, education, and infrastructure; 10) â€Å"Interest rates that are market determined and positive (but moderate) in real terms. † (Wikipedia, 2005) In the nineties the Washington consensus was being disputed.The critics of the reforms argued that they would lead vulnerable countries to crisis instead of helping to overcome it. Naomi Klein and Noam Chomsky claimed that the neoliberal policies of the Washington consensus would lead to the exploitation of labor market of an underdeveloped economy by a more developed one. (Wikipedia, 2005) Privatization of state industries, deregulation, and tax reform were seen by the opponents as the reforms which would ensure the development of the layer of local monied elite who would pursue loca l interests and try to maintain local status quo.Jorge Taiana, the Deputy Foreign Minister of Argentina, also disapproved the Washington consensus saying that such policies never had a real consensus and nowadays â€Å"a good number of governments of the hemisphere are reviewing the assumptions with which they applied those policies in the 1990s,† adding that governments are working on a development model which would ensure productive employment and guarantee the generation of real wealth. (Wikipedia, 2005)Another economist Duncan Kennedy in the article for The Boston Review stated that the Washington Consensus completely opposed the initial tenets of import substitution industrialization and more favoured American political interests: â€Å"In the form promoted by the United States, ISI was as hostile to free-market economics as to Communism. The overarching idea of the Washington Consensus was to wipe out every aspect of ISI: the Washington Consensus is both that free mark ets are good and that ISI [Import substitution industrialization] was bad.Developing countries were to develop through integration into the world commodity and capital markets, with policies of deregulated private enterprise, foreign investment, and open economic borders. † (Kennedy D. 2003) All in all, taking into consideration the mistakes of the previous experience and the criticism of the economists, the developmental policy of import substitution industrialization has never been returned since the time of the Washington Consensus. Thus, in the paper import substitution industrialization as a process and as a policy was investigated.It was found out that import substitution pursues three main goals: utilization of underused capacities, reducing unemployment and infant industries protection. The implementation of the policy of import substitution industrialization is based on three tenets: particular monetary and industrial policies, and protective trade barriers. However, it turned out that success and efficiency of import substitution industrialization was doubted by the proponents of absolute free market.Potential risks of import substitution were also visible while careful theoretical analysis and pointed out by economists. The underdeveloped countries of Latin America and East Asia implemented the policy of import substitution industrialization. It occurred that the potential risks and the negative aspects found out by the proponents of absolute free market constituted the drawbacks of the policy and finally became the chief factors of its failure.However, the major part of East Asian countries rejected the policy and experienced economic growth. The example of Brazil demonstrated that the policy of import substitution industrialization can stimulate economic growth for some period of time, but its drawbacks (first of all high expenditures and inefficiencies) pose real obstacles for continuous and strong economic development.

Feasibility Report Essay

The company will sell custom-made cakes, cupcakes and coffee. The revenues from the business will come from the sale of decorated cakes and cupcakes, as well as coffee for customers who visit the shop. The business will raise revenue from service: cake decoration and creation of the centerpieces of many of the most remarkable occasions of the lives of clients. Service revenue will come from different customized cake designs, decoration and bake creations. The business will use many different designs as discussed by Graham (2007) and Wilson (2011). The major revenue source during the initial year will be service revenue, including drink, cakes, and cupcakes sales. The business includes walk-in service. It will have two ordering delivery channels; phone orders and via online ordering. In addition, parking bays will be provided at a fee. The projected revenue from parking bays will be $75000 per year. The revenue from the sale of cupcakes, cakes and drinks is projected to be $100000 yea rly. The revenue from custom-making service will be $50000 annually. Therefore, the total projected revenue will be $225000. Cost Drivers The business will consider the costs in order to stay in business (Marron, 2014); (Kidder, 2012 ). a) Upfront Costs Since the business is new, there will be several starting costs before  official opening. Upfront costs consist of the purchase of furniture and fittings (table, chairs, coffee machines, installation of EFTPOS (electronic funds transfer at point of sale) and computers, cutlery, and front decoration (Ilasco and Seto, 2012 ); (Spencer, 2010). Advertising expenses will consist of the advertising campaign in the initial year. The advertising drive will be geared towards increasing sales to cater for the other costs (Marquis, Demand Media, 2014). Materials for shop decoration will be used to attract new customers. The total cost will include the cost of employing an interior designer. In addition, the business will consider the bond for the rent. This is because the expense must be paid prior before the business is opened. There will be other upfront costs that will include the certificates and legislations required for the business opening (Department of Health, 2014). b) Fixed Costs Owing to the scenic area of Melbourne, the high cost of rent must be taken into account. Utilities like lighting, heating, telephone lines, internet router and air conditioning have to be considered before the official opening. The business will choose a cheap electricity supplier. There are many to choose from (Smart Utilities, 2014). For an attractive design of the display in the shop, an interior designer with experience will be sought once per year. The cost associated with this will be recorded as ‘expenses for design.’ Besides, the parking bays’ rental will be a yearly fixed cost paid to Melbourne City Council (Hamer, Currie and Young , 2011). The parking bays will be provided to increase revenue. The business will take legislations into consideration, because set annual fees will have to be paid to the relevant bodies to ensure business continuation. c) Variable Costs These are the expenses that will change with the output of the business. The main variable cost in the cake and cupcake shop is raw materials used in the production of cupcakes, coffee and cakes such as lollies, vegetables, fruits, flour, milk, coffee beans and chocolate (Leach and Melicher, 2014). The cost of vegetables and fruits will change depending on seasonal and weather changes. There will be other variable costs like package expenses: boxes, bags, staff wages and utilities. The workers in the shop will include 1 baker 1 decorator Junior casual staff Wages will be paid fortnightly. Additionally, the business will offer staff uniforms and training opportunities. There will be allowance of discount expenses owing to the high-inventory turnover and the need to supply fresh products. On special occasions, the business may have deals or offers that will reduce the unit profit. There will be other expenses like machinery maintenance, new fittings and insurance. These will be required as the business grows. Resource Requirements/Mapping Human Resource It will be very easy to get the key employees as it will only involve placing adverts on the street notice boards. There will be an added cost of interviews, as well as paying the Melbourne City Council (City of Melbourne, 2014). Physical Resource Property for lease is available in the area identified. Due to the scenery of the area, the cost of lease is high. However, the expected returns are high. The business premises will be gotten under a one-year lease. This will save the cost that may be incurred in paying monthly costs. Similarly, it will avoid the costs associated with monthly rent increases. Financial Resource The total startup cost is $130000. The business will raise $30000 and $100000 will be obtained from the bank as loan. Costs for maintenance will be catered for by the revenue from the business. Investment Size The business plans to raise $130000 to meet its startup cost. The funds will be used for: Developing the company’s cupcake and cakes store location Financing for the first year of operation Capital to buy baking equipment and ovens The company will contribute $30000 to the venture. The remaining $100000 will be financed by the bank as loan. Projected Startup Costs Initial Lease Payments and Deposits $20000 Working Capital $60000 Security Deposits $20000 Opening Supplies $10000 Company Vehicle and Lease Deposits $2000 Marketing Budget $10000 Miscellaneous and Unforeseen Costs $8000 Total Startup Costs $130000 References Aaron Marquis, Demand Media , 2014. The Average Profit Margin for a Cake Bakery. [Online] Available at: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/average-profit-margin-cake-bakery-14214.html [Accessed 11 05 2014]. Department of Health, V. A., 2014. Starting a food business. [Online] Available at: http://www.health.vic.gov.au/foodsafety/bus/foodbus.htm [Accessed 11 05 2014].  Graham, J., 2007. The Crabapple Bakery Cupcake Cookbook. Print ed. London: Penguin Group (USA) Incorporated. J. Leach, Ronald Melicher, 2014 . Entrepreneurial Finance. 5 ed. Stamford: Cengage Learning. Kidder, D., 2012 . The Startup Playbook: Secrets of the Fastest-Growing Startups from Their Founding Entrepreneurs. Illustrated ed. San Francisco : Chronicle Books. Marron, D., 2014. Cupcake Economics. [Online] Available at: http://dmarron.com/2009/11/28/cupcake-economics/ [Accessed 11 05 2014]. Meg Mateo Ilasco, Catherine Seto, 2012 . Mom, Inc.: The Essential Guide to Running a Successful Business Close to Home. Illustrated ed. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. Melbourne, C. o., 2014. Rates and valuations. [Online] Available at: https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/buildingandplanning/ratesandvaluations/Pages/RatesandValuations.aspx [Accessed 11 05 2014]. Paul Hamer, Graham Currie, William Young , 2011. Parking Price Policies – A review of the Melbourne congestion levy. Australasian Transport Research Forum 2011 Proceedings , 1(1), pp. 1-16. Spencer, P., 2010 . Start a Cupcake Business Today. London: InformationTree Press. StartupBizHub, 2014. Starting a Cake Business. [Online] Available at: http://www.startupbizhub.com/starting-a-cake-business.htm [Accessed 11 05 2014]. Utilities, S., 2014. Compare Electricity Rates in Victoria. [Online] Available at: http://www.smartutilities.com.au/electricity-comparison-victoria/ [Accessed 11 05 2014]. Wilson, D., 2011 . Baker’s Field Guide to Cupcakes. Unabridged, reprint ed. New York City: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.